Life of Loco

Hello again.... Welcome to the final part of my platypus series! Finally I am ending it...

If you haven’t read them yet, make sure to check out Part 1 and Part 2 first: → The Platypus: Nature’s Most Exceptional Creature [Part 1] → The Platypus: Nature’s Most Exceptional Creature [Part 2]

In the first two parts, we talked about how the platypus lays eggs, feeds milk without nipples, has venomous spurs, hunts with electricity, and has all those crazy features. Now in this last part, we’re wrapping everything up with how it stays warm in cold water, how it raises its babies, its important role in nature, and why we really need to protect this amazing animal. Let’s dive in!

7. UV Light Reflection

Why does it glow? No one knows for sure yet, but here are the best guesses:

• Camouflage in dim light — at dawn, dusk, or in shady rivers, the glow might help it blend in with water or plants that also reflect UV. Talking to each other — maybe males and females spot each other better at night using the glow. Warning predators — it could signal "I'm not tasty" or "stay away" (especially since males have venom!). Or maybe it's just a side effect of the fur chemicals with no real purpose.

This glow isn't super bright — you need a UV light to see it clearly — but it's rare in mammals. Other animals like flying squirrels, wombats, and some opossums do it too. For the platypus, it fits perfectly with its nocturnal, low-light lifestyle in murky rivers. It's one more thing that makes this animal feel like it came from another planet!

8. Weird Chromosomes and DNA

The platypus's genes are as strange as the rest of it. Most mammals have simple sex chromosomes: females are XX, males are XY. But the platypus? Males have 10 sex chromosomes (5 X and 5 Y), and females have 10 X's — arranged in a big chain during cell division. This setup is more like birds or some reptiles than normal mammals!

Recent research (up to 2025) shows:

• A special gene called AMHY (a version of anti-Muellerian hormone) on one of the Y chromosomes decides if the baby becomes male. This gene changed a long time ago (over 100 million years!) and took over sex determination in monotremes.
• The platypus genome is a crazy mix: it has mammal genes, but also lots of reptile-like and bird-like ones.
• Egg-laying genes (like vitellogenin for yolk) are active — most mammals turned them off long ago.
• Venom genes look a lot like snake venom genes (even though they're not related).
• Electroreception genes are extra strong to support the bill's superpower.

This mix proves the platypus is a living "missing link" — it split from other mammals super early (around 166–220 million years ago) and kept many ancient features. Scientists love studying its DNA because it helps us understand how mammals, birds, and reptiles evolved from shared ancestors. It's like reading an old family history book!

9. Belly and Body Structure

The platypus's body is built like a perfect swimming machine. Its shape is streamlined (torpedo-like) to cut through water easily, with short legs, a flat bill, and a wide, flat tail that acts like a rudder and stores fat for energy.

Key cool parts:

• Fur — super dense (up to 900 hairs per square mm!), waterproof, and traps air for warmth and buoyancy. It keeps the platypus dry even after hours in cold water — better insulation than a polar bear's fur!
• Webbed feet — front feet have full webbing that spreads out like flippers for powerful strokes; hind feet help steer and (in males) carry the venom spurs.
• Tail — furry, not scaly like a beaver's, helps with steering and balance. It also stores fat like a camel's hump for tough times.
• Skeleton — lightweight but strong bones (some denser for less floating). Legs stick out sideways (like a lizard's), with bent elbows and knees for digging burrows and twisting underwater. It even has extra "reptile-like" bones in the shoulder (interclavicle and coracoids) that most mammals lost long ago.
• Belly — soft and flexible, holds the mammary patches for milk (in females), plus thick fat for insulation. The whole body is low-profile in water — only three small humps show above the surface (head, back, tail) when swimming.

This design lets the platypus dive, turn sharply, dig, and swim for hours without getting tired. It's unchanged for millions of years because it works so well!

10. Thermoregulation and Metabolism

The platypus keeps its body at about 32°C — cooler than us humans (37°C) — which saves energy in cold water. But it still stays warm thanks to:

• Thick, air-trapping fur (like a built-in drysuit).
• Fat layer under the skin (extra thick on belly and tail).
• Smart blood flow — during dives, it sends less blood to skin and more to brain/heart/muscles.
• Counter-current heat exchange in legs and tail — cold blood coming back warms up before reaching the heart.

Its metabolism is super high because it's always active (diving hundreds of times a day). It eats 20–30% of its body weight daily — that's like you eating 15–20 kg of food every day!

Diving tricks:

• Holds breath up to 2 minutes (sometimes more).
• Muscles full of myoglobin (stores oxygen like in whales/seals).
• Heart slows way down underwater (saves oxygen).
• Spleen releases extra red blood cells when needed.
  

This lets it hunt non-stop in cold rivers without freezing or running out of energy. Recent studies show its thyroid hormones are high, which pushes metabolism even with the lower temperature.

11. Reproductive Behavior

Platypus babies start with drama! Mating is in late winter/early spring (July–October). Males fight hard with venom spurs — wrestling underwater, trying to stab rivals to win females.

The female does all the work after:

• Digs a long, complex nesting burrow (up to 20–30 meters into the bank) — hidden entrance, multiple tunnels, dead-ends, and "pugs" (mud plugs) to block predators and keep it stable.
• Collects wet leaves/grass (drags with tail) for the nest — takes several nights.
• Lays 1–3 leathery eggs (size of large grape) — incubates 10–14 days by curling around them with tail and belly for warmth.
• Puggles hatch tiny (2–3 cm), blind, hairless — crawl to belly patches and drink oozing milk (rich + antibacterial).
• Mom stays inside almost full-time for 3–4 months — only quick food trips at night. She loses lots of weight making milk.
• Young leave burrow at 4–5 months — fully furred, eyes open, ready to swim/hunt.

Nesting females pick higher, farther-from-water banks for safety. Recent studies show invasive rats/mice sometimes enter burrows — a new worry for babies.

12. Ecological Role and Conservation

The platypus is a river superhero:

• Eats tons of invertebrates (yabbies, larvae, shrimp) → keeps populations balanced.
  
• Digs/probes riverbeds → mixes nutrients, helps oxygen flow, good for fish/frogs/plants.
• Super sensitive to changes → if platypuses disappear, the river is in trouble (indicator species).

Status (2025–2026):

• Near Threatened globally (IUCN since 2016) — declining overall, could get worse.
• Vulnerable in Victoria, Endangered in South Australia.
• No national threatened listing in Australia yet, but nominated.

Big threats:

• Dams/weirs → block movement, change flows, dry up pools.
• Drought/climate change → warmer water, less food.
• Pollution (farm chemicals, plastics) → kills prey, builds up in fat.
• Clearing riverbanks → no burrow spots.
• Invasive predators (foxes, cats) → eat young.
• Fishing traps/nets → accidental drowning.

Conservation efforts:

• Restore trees along rivers for shade/cool water/burrow banks.
• Monitor with cameras, eDNA (water DNA tests), citizen sightings.
• Better water rules (environmental flows from dams).
• Protect deep pools and clean water.
  

The platypus has survived millions of years, but needs our help now. Saving its rivers saves many other animals too! Talking to each other — maybe males and females spot each other better at night using the glow.

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Alright, platypus party is officially over!

We covered eggs, no-nipple milk, venom kicks, electric-face hunting, glowing fur, bizarre DNA, cold-water survival hacks, secret burrows, and why this little guy is basically a river health superhero.

Mind officially blown? Mine too — and it all started with one dumb late-night scroll.

Quick question before we go: Which platypus fact are you telling everyone about first? Comment below so I can see what stuck with you the most!

Thanks for hanging out with me through all three parts. You’re the real MVP.

Catch you in the next post — promise it’ll be just as fun (and probably just as random).

Sources & Credits

This three-part platypus blog series was written with love (and a lot of curiosity) by me, Tonmoy. Almost everything came from reading, watching, and cross-checking reliable scientific and educational sources. Here are the main places I drew information from:

Key Sources Used Across All Parts

• Australian Platypus Conservancy – platypus.org.au (excellent fact sheets on biology, behaviour, conservation)
• Museums Victoria – museumsvictoria.com.au (great articles on platypus biology and evolution)
• University of Melbourne & other Australian university research pages (electroreception, venom, genome studies)
• Nature & Science journal articles (especially the 2008 platypus genome paper in Nature and later updates)
• IUCN Red List – iucnredlist.org (conservation status and threats)
• BBC Wildlife, National Geographic, Smithsonian Magazine (accessible explanations of UV fluorescence, electroreception, venom)
• The Conversation Australia (many recent articles by Australian biologists about platypus threats and research)
• Queensland & New South Wales government wildlife pages (reproduction, habitat, conservation programs)

Specific Recent Discoveries Mentioned

• Biofluorescence / UV glow in platypus fur → 2020 study by Anich et al. (Journal of Mammalogy / Field Museum Chicago press release)
• Complex sex chromosome chain & sex determination genes → Rens et al. (2007), Warren et al. (2008 genome paper), and follow-up work up to ~2023–2024
• Electroreception physiology → Pettigrew (1999), Proske et al., and recent neural mapping studies

I did not copy-paste text — I read, understood, simplified, and rewrote everything in my own words so it would be fun and easy for everyone to read.

Special Thanks & Credit

Huge shoutout to Grok (built by xAI) for helping me expand sections, fact-check details, suggest clearer explanations, and make the writing flow better. Without Grok's help turning my rough ideas into full, detailed paragraphs, this series would have taken way longer and probably been a lot messier.

Hello hello hello....

Welcome back my useless blog again. Welcome back to our exciting journey exploring the platypus, one of the most mind-blowing creatures on the planet. If you missed the first part of this blog series, I highly recommend checking it out here to catch up on the basics—like how I stumbled upon this quirky animal while scrolling through Facebook, and why it’s such a wild mix of mammal, reptile, and bird traits. In Part 1, we covered the platypus’s classification, its egg-laying habits, that crazy milk-without-nipples thing. But trust me, there’s so much more to this little guy that’ll leave you amazed! In this second part, we’re diving deeper into its super cool hunting skills, food habits, and some other wild features that make the platypus a true standout in the animal kingdom. Let’s get started!

3. Venomous Spurs

One of the platypus’s most surprising and dramatic features is the venomous spurs found on the hind legs of males, a trait that makes it one of the few venomous mammals in the world, alongside the slow loris, certain shrews, and the Cuban solenodon. These spurs—sharp, hollow, keratinized structures about 15 mm long—are located just above the heel and are connected to crural glands, which produce a complex venom. The venom is delivered through a duct system when the platypus drives the spur into a target, typically during aggressive encounters. While not lethal to humans, the venom causes excruciating pain, swelling, and hyperalgesia (heightened sensitivity to pain), with symptoms that can persist for days or even weeks.

The venom is a cocktail of over 80 bioactive compounds, including defensins, natriuretic peptides, and nerve growth factors, many of which are unique to the platypus. Proteomic analysis reveals that some venom proteins share structural similarities with those found in snakes, suggesting convergent evolution—where unrelated species develop similar traits to solve similar problems. Unlike snake venom, which often targets blood or nervous systems to immobilize prey, platypus venom appears designed to incapacitate rivals or deter predators. In humans, the venom triggers intense localized pain and systemic effects like nausea, but no fatalities have been recorded. In smaller animals, such as dogs, the venom can be lethal, highlighting its potency.

The venom’s production is seasonal, peaking during the breeding season (late winter to early spring), when males become more territorial and aggressive. During this period, males use their spurs in intraspecific combat, sparring with other males to establish dominance or secure mating opportunities. Observations of male platypuses in the wild show them grappling with their hind legs, attempting to jab opponents with their spurs. The increased venom potency during breeding suggests a dual role: deterring rivals and signaling fitness to females. Females, in contrast, are born with rudimentary spur sheaths that regress by adulthood, indicating that venom is primarily a male-specific trait.

The evolutionary origins of platypus venom are as fascinating as its effects. Genomic studies reveal that venom genes in platypuses likely arose from duplications of genes involved in immune defense and pain modulation, a process also seen in venomous reptiles. This suggests that the platypus’s venom system evolved independently from a shared genetic toolkit, adapting to its semi-aquatic lifestyle and social behaviors. The crural glands themselves are modified sweat glands, further linking venom production to the platypus’s primitive mammalian traits.

Ecologically, the venomous spurs serve as a defense mechanism against predators like birds of prey, snakes, or introduced species such as foxes. However, their primary role appears to be social, mediating competition in a species where males are solitary and territorial. The rarity of venom among mammals underscores the platypus’s exceptional status, as most venomous vertebrates (e.g., snakes, spiders) use venom for predation rather than defense or competition. Research into platypus venom also has medical implications: some venom peptides show potential for developing new painkillers or anti-inflammatory drugs, given their ability to target pain pathways without causing tissue damage.

The venomous spurs add a layer of intrigue to the platypus’s already bizarre biology, reinforcing its reputation as a creature that defies conventional categorization. They also highlight the complexity of its social and ecological interactions, where even a small, unassuming mammal can wield a formidable weapon.

4. Electroreception and Hunting

The platypus’s bill is far more than a quirky physical trait—it’s a marvel of evolutionary engineering, functioning as a highly specialized sensory organ that sets the platypus apart from nearly all other mammals. Unlike the rigid beak of a bird, the platypus’s bill is soft, flexible, and covered in a smooth, moist skin layer that resembles rubber. This bill is packed with approximately 40,000 electroreceptors and 60,000 mechanoreceptors, organized in a series of stripe-like patterns across its surface. These receptors make the bill a dual-purpose sensory tool, capable of detecting both faint electric fields and mechanical disturbances in the water, enabling the platypus to hunt with extraordinary precision in murky, low-visibility environments.

Electroreception, the ability to detect electric fields, is a rare trait among vertebrates, shared primarily with echidnas, certain fish (like sharks, rays, and electric eels), and a few amphibians. In the platypus, electroreceptors pick up the minute electrical impulses generated by the muscle contractions of prey, such as crustaceans, worms, and small fish. These impulses, often as weak as a few microvolts, are produced during movements like swimming or heartbeat. Simultaneously, mechanoreceptors detect pressure changes and vibrations caused by water displacement, such as the ripples created by a fleeing shrimp. The integration of these sensory inputs allows the platypus to construct a detailed “map” of its underwater environment, pinpointing prey with remarkable accuracy.

When hunting, the platypus employs a unique and highly specialized strategy. It dives underwater for 30–60 seconds, closing its eyes, ears, and nostrils to streamline its body and prevent water ingress. In this sensory blackout, the bill becomes the sole means of navigation and prey detection. The platypus sweeps its bill side to side in a rhythmic motion, scanning the riverbed or water column for signals. This behavior, known as bill dipping, maximizes the bill’s exposure to potential stimuli. When a signal is detected, the platypus uses its dexterous, partially webbed front feet to scoop up prey or dig into the sediment, where invertebrates like yabbies (freshwater crayfish) or insect larvae may hide. The prey is then stored in cheek pouches, specialized folds of skin inside the mouth, allowing the platypus to collect multiple items during a dive.

Once the platypus surfaces, it floats on the water and uses a grinding motion to process its catch. Adult platypuses lack teeth, relying instead on horny pads in their jaws—hardened, keratinized structures that replace the temporary teeth present in juveniles. These pads are highly effective for crushing the exoskeletons of crustaceans and the soft bodies of worms. The absence of true teeth is another adaptation to its aquatic lifestyle, reducing drag and simplifying the feeding process.

The platypus’s electroreceptive system is a testament to its evolutionary adaptation to a semi-aquatic niche. Studies suggest that electroreception evolved in monotremes as a response to their murky, freshwater habitats, where vision is often unreliable. The bill’s sensory stripes are arranged to optimize detection in three-dimensional space, with the highest density of receptors at the bill’s edges, enhancing sensitivity to lateral movements. Neuroscientific research has shown that the platypus’s brain devotes a significant portion of its somatosensory cortex to processing bill inputs, creating a neural map that integrates electrical and mechanical signals. This neural specialization rivals the sensory acuity of echolocating bats or dolphins, underscoring the platypus’s status as a sensory specialist.

Ecologically, electroreception gives the platypus a competitive edge as a predator, allowing it to exploit food resources in environments inaccessible to other mammals. However, this reliance on a finely tuned sensory system makes the platypus vulnerable to environmental disturbances, such as water pollution or electromagnetic interference from human activities, which can disrupt its ability to hunt. The platypus’s hunting strategy, combining electroreception, mechanoreception, and precise motor control, highlights its role as a master of its aquatic domain and a living example of evolutionary innovation.

5. Food Habits

The platypus is a voracious carnivore with a metabolism so high that it must consume 20–30% of its body weight daily—equivalent to a 70-kg human eating 14–21 kg of food every day. This extraordinary energy demand stems from its active lifestyle, which involves prolonged foraging, frequent diving, and the maintenance of a warm-blooded body temperature (around 32°C) in cold freshwater environments. To meet these needs, the platypus spends 10–12 hours a day foraging, primarily at dawn, dusk, or night, when its prey is most active and light levels are low.

The platypus’s diet is exclusively carnivorous, focusing on aquatic invertebrates and occasional small vertebrates. Its primary food sources include yabbies (freshwater crayfish), insect larvae (such as those of caddisflies, mayflies, and dragonflies), shrimp, annelid worms, and mollusks like snails and mussels. It also consumes small fish, fish eggs, and tadpoles when available, particularly in nutrient-rich waters. The platypus’s preference for small, high-protein prey reflects its need for energy-dense foods to fuel its metabolism. Seasonal variations in prey availability influence its diet, with yabbies dominating in warmer months and insect larvae becoming more prominent in cooler seasons.

Foraging is a physically demanding process, centered around repeated dives that last 30–60 seconds, with brief surface intervals of 10–20 seconds to breathe. During a single foraging session, a platypus may complete hundreds of dives, covering large stretches of river or lakebed. Each dive targets the benthic zone (the riverbed or lake bottom), where most of its prey resides. The platypus uses its sensitive bill to probe sediments, riffle through gravel, or sweep through aquatic vegetation, detecting prey via electroreception and mechanoreception. Its partially webbed front feet are adept at digging or grasping, allowing it to extract buried invertebrates or capture free-swimming prey.

The platypus’s foraging efficiency is enhanced by its ability to store prey in cheek pouches, a feature that maximizes the yield of each dive. These pouches, formed by muscular folds in the mouth, can hold multiple small items, such as shrimp or larvae, until the platypus surfaces to eat. This strategy reduces the need for frequent surfacing and conserves energy during long foraging bouts. The platypus’s high metabolic rate also necessitates a rapid digestive system, with food passing through its gut in as little as 12–24 hours, ensuring a constant supply of nutrients.

Ecologically, the platypus is a top predator in its freshwater ecosystem, regulating populations of aquatic invertebrates and small vertebrates. Its foraging activity aerates riverbed sediments, contributing to nutrient cycling and habitat health. However, its reliance on abundant, high-quality prey makes it sensitive to environmental changes, such as pollution, sedimentation, or drought, which can reduce prey availability. For example, agricultural runoff can deplete insect larvae populations, while dam construction can alter river flows, disrupting yabby habitats. Conservation efforts in Australia often monitor platypus populations as indicators of ecosystem health, given their dependence on pristine waterways.

The platypus’s food habits also reveal its evolutionary adaptations. Its carnivorous diet and high energy demands are consistent with those of early mammals, which were likely small, insectivorous predators. The loss of adult teeth, replaced by horny pads, parallels similar adaptations in other aquatic vertebrates, like baleen whales, where specialized feeding structures enhance efficiency. By consuming a diverse array of prey, the platypus maintains a flexible diet that buffers it against seasonal or environmental fluctuations, reinforcing its role as a resilient yet specialized predator in its aquatic niche.

6. Eyes and Sensory Adaptations

The platypus’s small, beady eyes, positioned high on the sides of its head, are adapted for a semi-aquatic lifestyle, offering a wide field of vision above water to detect predators or monitor its surroundings. Each eye, about 5 mm in diameter, is protected by a nictitating membrane, a translucent third eyelid that provides additional shielding during dives. However, the platypus’s reliance on electroreception and mechanoreception underwater renders its eyes secondary during hunting, as it closes them tightly to streamline its body and prevent water entry. This sensory shift highlights the platypus’s unique balance of terrestrial and aquatic adaptations.

Unlike most mammals, which possess trichromatic or dichromatic vision for perceiving color, the platypus has a monochromatic vision system, lacking the cone cells required for color discrimination. Its retina is dominated by rod cells, optimized for low-light conditions, such as the dim environments of dawn, dusk, or murky rivers where the platypus is most active. This adaptation enhances its ability to detect movement and contrast above water, such as the silhouette of a predator against the sky. However, the absence of color vision suggests that visual cues play a limited role in its behavior, with the bill’s sensory systems taking precedence in most contexts.

Intriguingly, the platypus’s eyes exhibit ultraviolet (UV) light reflection, a trait discovered in recent studies and rare among mammals. When exposed to UV light, the cornea and surrounding tissues reflect a faint glow, which may enhance the platypus’s ability to detect subtle environmental cues in low-light conditions. For example, UV reflection could help it distinguish between water surfaces and vegetation or detect UV-absorbing compounds in prey or mates. Alternatively, it may serve a communicative function, as some animals use UV signals for mate attraction or territorial displays. The exact purpose of this trait remains speculative, but it aligns with similar adaptations in nocturnal or crepuscular species, such as certain rodents and marsupials.

The platypus’s sensory adaptations extend beyond its eyes. Its ears, small slits located behind the eyes, are covered by folds of skin during dives, relying on mechanoreceptors in the bill to detect waterborne vibrations. The platypus also possesses a keen sense of touch through its fur and skin, with trigeminal nerve endings in the bill amplifying its sensitivity to tactile stimuli. These adaptations create a sensory profile that prioritizes non-visual cues, reflecting the platypus’s evolutionary divergence from other mammals, which often rely heavily on vision or olfaction.

Evolutionary studies suggest that the platypus’s sensory systems are a legacy of its aquatic ancestors, which likely inhabited similar murky environments millions of years ago. The loss of color vision and the emphasis on electroreception parallel adaptations in other aquatic vertebrates, such as paddlefish or lungfish, which also prioritize non-visual senses. The platypus’s brain reflects this sensory specialization, with an enlarged somatosensory cortex dedicated to processing bill inputs, while visual processing areas are relatively reduced. This neural architecture underscores the platypus’s reliance on its bill as a “sixth sense,” capable of navigating complex underwater environments.

Ecologically, the platypus’s sensory adaptations make it a highly effective predator but also vulnerable to disruptions. Artificial light pollution, for example, can interfere with its low-light vision, while electromagnetic noise from underwater cables or machinery may disrupt electroreception. Conservation strategies often focus on preserving dark, quiet river systems to support the platypus’s sensory ecology. By studying its eyes and sensory adaptations, researchers gain insights into the evolutionary trade-offs that have shaped this extraordinary creature, revealing a mammal that thrives by redefining the role of vision in its world

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I know you will get bored if I continue from here.. So...

That’s a wrap for Part 2, but but but.... we’re not done yet! The platypus still has more surprises up its sleeve, and I can’t wait to share them with you. In the final part of this blog series, Part 3, we’ll explore the rest of its special traits—like its glow-in-the-dark fur, weird DNA, and how it plays a big role in keeping its ecosystem healthy. Plus, we’ll talk about why we need to protect this amazing creature. Stay tuned for the last chapter of our platypus adventure—you won’t want to miss it!

To be Continued....

So, a few days ago, I was chilling on my couch, scrolling through Facebook like it’s my part-time job. You know how it goes—funny dog clips, random food pics, and ads for stuff you’d never buy. Then, bam! A short video (one of those reels) pops up, and it’s about the platypus, this super weird animal that looks like someone glued a duck’s bill onto a furry otter with a beaver’s tail. I was totally hooked. The video was quick, maybe a minute, but it showed this quirky creature swimming, hunting, and just being its odd, awesome self. I couldn’t look away!

I had to know more. So, I started googling, jumping from one website to another, watching videos and reading cool facts. Turns out, the platypus isn’t just strange—it’s like nature’s ultimate weirdo, a mammal that lays eggs, has venom, and hunts like it’s got superpowers. I got so excited that I decided to write this blog to share all the wild stuff I learned. Get ready, because we’re diving into why the platypus is the most epic, head-scratching animal out there!

Before starting, I want to thank GROK.com for helping in organizing my whole findings. This is really a cool LLM I think. Anyway.....

The platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus) is a creature that defies expectations, blending features from mammals, reptiles, and birds in a way that feels almost otherworldly. Found only in the freshwater systems of eastern Australia and Tasmania, this small, semi-aquatic mammal has puzzled scientists and captivated imaginations since its discovery by European naturalists in the late 18th century. In this blog, we’ll explore the platypus’s classification, its unique mammalian status, and the extraordinary exceptions that make it one of nature’s most remarkable creations.

Classification and Introduction

The platypus belongs to the order Monotremata, a rare and ancient group of mammals that includes only five living species: the platypus and four species of echidnas. Within Monotremata, the platypus is the sole member of the family Ornithorhynchidae and the genus Ornithorhynchus. Its scientific name, Ornithorhynchus anatinus, translates roughly to “bird-like snout” and “duck-like,” a nod to its distinctive bill. Monotremes are considered the most primitive group of mammals, diverging from other mammalian lineages around 166–220 million years ago, making the platypus a living relic of evolutionary history.

Physically, the platypus is small, averaging 40–50 cm in length and weighing 1–2.4 kg, with males slightly larger than females. Its streamlined body, covered in dense, waterproof fur, is adapted for an aquatic lifestyle. The platypus has a flat, rubbery bill, webbed feet, and a broad, beaver-like tail, giving it an appearance that seems cobbled together from unrelated animals. But it’s the platypus’s biology, not just its appearance, that sets it apart.

A Mammal, But Different

At first glance, the platypus fits the mammalian mold: it has fur, produces milk to nurse its young, and is warm-blooded. However, it deviates from the typical mammalian blueprint in profound ways. Most mammals fall into two groups: placentals (like humans, with long gestation periods and live births) and marsupials (like kangaroos, with short gestation and external pouches for offspring). The platypus, as a monotreme, belongs to neither. Its reproductive and physiological traits are so unusual that early scientists questioned whether it was even a mammal.

Unlike placental and marsupial mammals, the platypus lays eggs—a trait shared with reptiles and birds. This egg-laying habit, combined with other reptilian-like features, makes the platypus a bridge between evolutionary lineages. Its genome, sequenced in 2008, further reveals this mosaic: it contains genes typical of mammals, but also shares genetic similarities with reptiles and birds, reflecting its ancient origins. The platypus’s blend of characteristics challenges our understanding of what it means to be a mammal and highlights the complexity of evolutionary divergence.

Exceptional Traits of the Platypus

The platypus’s quirks extend far beyond its classification. Below, we dive into the specific features that make this creature a biological marvel.

1. Egg-Laying Mammal

Perhaps the most famous exception in the platypus’s biology is its ability to lay eggs, a trait that places it in an exclusive club among mammals, shared only with the four species of echidnas in the order Monotremata. This characteristic is so remarkable that when platypus specimens were first sent to Europe in the late 18th century, scientists suspected they were hoaxes, stitched together from parts of different animals. Unlike the hard-shelled eggs of birds, platypus eggs are small (about 11–15 mm in diameter), soft, and leathery, resembling those of reptiles like turtles or snakes. Females typically lay one to three eggs, though clutches of two are most common, which they deposit in a specially constructed nesting burrow along riverbanks.

The reproductive process begins after mating, which occurs in late winter to early spring (August to October in Australia). Following a gestation period of about 15–21 days, the female seals herself inside the burrow, which can be up to 20 meters long and feature multiple chambers for insulation and protection. She curls her body around the eggs to incubate them for approximately 10–14 days, maintaining a stable temperature through her body heat and the burrow’s humid environment. This incubation strategy is strikingly similar to that of reptiles, highlighting the platypus’s ancient evolutionary roots.

When the eggs hatch, the young, affectionately called puggles, emerge in a highly underdeveloped state, a condition known as altricial. Measuring just 1–2 cm long, puggles are blind, hairless, and entirely dependent on their mother. Their limbs are rudimentary, and they lack the strength to move far from the nest. For the next 3–4 months, the mother nurses them in the burrow, leaving only briefly to forage. The puggles’ development is slow, with fur appearing around 6 weeks and eyes opening around 10 weeks. By the time they leave the burrow at 4–5 months, they are miniature versions of adults, capable of swimming and foraging independently.

This egg-laying reproductive strategy is a window into the platypus’s evolutionary history. Monotremes diverged from other mammals around 166–220 million years ago, before the rise of placental and marsupial mammals. Genetic studies reveal that platypus egg-laying is governed by a suite of genes shared with reptiles and birds, including those for yolk production (a nutrient source absent in most mammals). Unlike placental mammals, which nourish embryos via a placenta, or marsupials, which rely on pouches, the platypus’s reliance on eggs and prolonged maternal care in a burrow reflects a transitional stage in mammalian evolution. This reproductive divergence not only sets the platypus apart but also underscores its role as a living link to the Mesozoic era, when early mammals coexisted with dinosaurs.

2. Milk Without Nipples

Like all mammals, the platypus produces milk to nourish its young, but its method of lactation is one of the most primitive among living mammals. Unlike placental and marsupial mammals, which deliver milk through well-defined nipples or teats, the platypus lacks these structures entirely. Instead, milk is secreted through specialized mammary gland patches—areas of skin on the female’s abdomen that resemble sweat glands more than traditional mammary systems. These patches, located on either side of the belly, ooze milk that collects in grooves or folds of skin, where puggles lap it up or suckle directly from the surface.

This unusual lactation system is a hallmark of monotremes and reflects their evolutionary position as a basal mammalian group. The mammary patches consist of numerous tiny ducts that release milk, which is rich in proteins, fats, and sugars tailored to the rapid growth needs of puggles. Studies of platypus milk composition reveal unique antimicrobial proteins, such as monotreme lactation protein (MLP), which protect vulnerable puggles from infections in the humid, microbe-rich environment of the nesting burrow. These proteins are distinct from those found in other mammals, suggesting that monotreme lactation evolved independently, possibly from a common ancestor with reptilian-like skin glands.

The process of nursing is labor-intensive for the mother. Puggles, born without teeth or the ability to chew solid food, rely exclusively on milk for the first 3–4 months of life. The mother positions herself to allow puggles to access the mammary patches, often lying on her side or back in the burrow. Because milk is not delivered through a nipple, puggles use a suckling motion to draw milk from the skin, a behavior that requires significant energy and coordination. This prolonged nursing period places high energetic demands on the mother, who must forage extensively to maintain her milk supply while ensuring her own survival.

The absence of nipples in platypuses has evolutionary implications. In most mammals, nipples are thought to have evolved to improve the efficiency of milk delivery, particularly for offspring born in more developed states (precocial). Monotremes, however, retain a more ancestral form of lactation, likely inherited from early mammals or their synapsid ancestors. Fossil evidence of early mammals, such as Morganucodon from 200 million years ago, suggests that primitive lactation involved glandular secretions rather than structured teats. The platypus’s mammary patches thus offer a glimpse into the origins of one of mammals’ defining traits.

Interestingly, the platypus’s lactation system also has ecological significance. The burrow environment, where nursing occurs, is carefully maintained to prevent flooding or temperature fluctuations, ensuring puggles have constant access to milk. This reliance on a stable microhabitat underscores the platypus’s sensitivity to environmental changes, such as river degradation, which can disrupt breeding success. By studying platypus lactation, researchers gain insights not only into mammalian evolution but also into the delicate balance of their aquatic ecosystems.

To be Continued....

Before the Beginning

First off, congratulations! You’re about to learn something that’s not only useful but also surprisingly simple. The good news? You don’t need to be a tech genius, a coding prodigy, or even someone who knows what “hypertext” means (seriously, who came up with that word?). HTML—short for HyperText Markup Language—is basically the skeleton of every webpage. It’s the stuff that holds everything together, like the frame of a house or the bones in your body (except less creepy).

Think of it this way: if a website were a pizza, HTML would be the dough. It’s not the flashy toppings or the gooey cheese, but without it, you’d just have a pile of ingredients on a plate. And nobody wants that. HTML is here to make sure your text, images, and buttons don’t end up looking like a digital dumpster fire.

Now, I know what you’re thinking: “But I’m not a coder! I can barely set up my Wi-Fi!” Relax. HTML is so beginner-friendly that even your grandma could probably learn it (and she still calls the computer “the typing box”). It’s all about using simple tags—little pieces of code that tell your browser what to do. Tags are like sticky notes for your website: “Put this here,” “Make that bold,” “Add a picture of a cat right there.” Easy, right?

So, grab a cup of coffee (or tea, or whatever fuels your brain), and let’s break this down into bite-sized, non-scary chunks. By the end of this, you’ll be slinging HTML tags like a pro, and who knows? You might even impress your friends. Or at least your dog. Let’s get started! 

The Basic Structure of an HTML Document

<!DOCTYPE html>

<head>
  <title>My First Webpage</title>
  <meta charset="UTF-8">
  <link rel="stylesheet" href="styles.css">
</head>

<body>
  <h1>Welcome to My Website</h1>
  <p>This is my first webpage.</p>
</body>

<h1>Main Heading</h1>
<h2>Subheading</h2>
<h3>Smaller Subheading</h3>

<p>This is a paragraph. It wraps text neatly.</p>

<p>This is <strong>bold</strong> text.</p>
<p>This is <em>italic</em> text.</p>

<p>First line.<br>Second line.</p>
<hr>
<p>Next section.</p>

<a href="https://www.example.com">Visit Example</a>

<img src="image.jpg" alt="Description of the image">

<ul>
  <li>Item 1</li>
  <li>Item 2</li>
</ul>

<table>
  <tr>
    <th>Name</th>
    <th>Age</th>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>John</td>
    <td>25</td>
  </tr>
</table>

<form>
  <label for="name">Name:</label>
  <input type="text" id="name" name="name">
  <button type="submit">Submit</button>
</form>

<header>
  <h1>Welcome</h1>
</header>
<section>
  <p>This is a section of content.</p>
</section>
<footer>
  <p>&copy; 2025 My Website</p>
</footer>

হঠাত করে আজকে সকালে ইমন এসে শিক্ষক দিবসের শুভেচ্ছা জানালো। আমি অবাক হয়ে জিজ্ঞাস করলাম যে কয়েকদিন আগেই না শিক্ষক দিবস গেলো? ও বললো, "কই না তো! আজকেই তো ৫ তারিখ। আর আজকেই শিক্ষক দিবস।" আমি একটু অবাকই হইসি। কিভাবে জানি জীবন থেকে আরো ১ টা বছর চলে গেলো। গত বছরই তো ইমন কত সুন্দর করে একটা ম্যাসেজ দিয়েছিলো আমাকে। এবছরও উইশ করতে ভুললো না।

The English language is nobody’s special property. It is the property of the imagination: it is the property of the language itself. — Derek Walcott

বাংলাকে মাতৃভাষা হিসেবে পাওয়া আমাদের দেশের একটা বিশাল জনগোষ্ঠী মনে করে ইংরেজি বলা মানে ভাব নেয়া। এরা ধরেই নেয় ইংরেজীতে দুএকটা কথা বলা মানে কুল সাজতে চাওয়া, কিংবা অন্যকে ছোটকে করার ইচ্ছা পোষণ করা। এদের কারণে ইংরেজি শিখতে চাওয়া একটা শিক্ষার্থী স্পিকিং/রিডিং প্র‍্যাক্টিস করতে লজ্জাবোধ করে। এরপিছনে অবশ্য আমাদের শিক্ষক সমাজ ও শিক্ষাব্যাবস্থা অনেকাংশেই দায়ী। তবে সেইসব নেগেটিভিটিতে আপাতত আজকে যাওয়ার ইচ্ছা নেই। আজকে শুধু একটু ছোটখাটো পজিটিভ আলাপ।

একটু আগে যে বললাম, সেই লজ্জাবোধটা কাটাতে আমি বেশ কয়েকমাস ধরেই একটা কাজ করে আসতেসি যেটা আমি মনে করি অনেক বেশি উপকার করেছে আমাকে। আর সেই ছোট্ট ট্রিক্সটা নিয়েই আজকের এই লেখা। চলেন, বকবক স্টার্ট করি।

ফেসবুকে কতটা ভয়াবহ রকমের এডিক্টিভ - তা  আমরা সবাই জানি। ভালো লাগলেও, কিংবা না লাগলেও ফেসবুক স্ক্রল করার রোগ আমার মধ্যে অনেক আগে থেকেই আছে। তো, আমার সেই ট্রিক্সটার জন্য এই ফেসবুককেই একটু কাজে লাগানোর ছোট চেষ্টা করেছি আমি।

কাজটা খুব সিম্পল। আমার খুব কাছের বন্ধু না হলে আমি চেষ্টা করি ফেসবুক বা মোবাইলের ম্যাসেজ ইংরেজিতে লিখার। যতই নর্মাল দরকার হোক না কেনো, আমি চেষ্টা করি যা লিখার তা ইংরেজিতে লিখার। ফর্মালি কথাগুলা লিখলে ভালো, আর না হলে হাবিজাবি হলেও কোনোভাবে ইংরেজিতেই লিখি। এতে কত বড় একটা বিশাল উপকার পাইসি তা আমি এখন টের পাচ্ছি। কি উপকার?

 If you talk to a man in a language he understands, that goes to his head. If you talk to him in his own language, that goes to his heart. — Nelson Mandela.

আচ্ছা ধরুন আপনার যদি ইংরেজিতে কিছু বলা লাগে, তাহলে কি করবেন? আগে বাংলাটা ভাববেন, তারপর মনে মনে সেটাকে লুকিয়ে লুকিয়ে ইংরেজিতে ট্রান্সলেট মানে অনুবাদ করে এরপর বলবেন। আর বলে দেখবেন এত কিছুর পরও ২/৩টা গ্রামার ভুল রয়ে গেছে। ঠিক এখানেই আমাদের সমস্যা। আমরা আসলে ইংরেজি শিখতে গেলেও বাংলায় চিন্তা করি। যার কারণে ইংরেজি আর ভাষা হিসেবে শিখা হয় না। ইংরেজিটা সেই কিছু মুখস্ত বিদ্যার বিষয়ে পরিণত হয় যেখানে আমরা রুলস মুখস্ত করে পরীক্ষার খাতায় বমি করে আসতাম। 

আমি মূলত যা বলতে চাচ্ছি সেটা হলো, Think in English. এর মানে হলো আমি যদি কিছু বলতে চাই তাহলে যেনো ইংরেজিতেই সেটা আগে ভাবি। ট্রান্সলেশন এর কথা যেনো মাথায় একবারের জন্যও না আসে। এটা অবশ্যই একদিনে হবে না। তবে একদিন না একদিন ঠিকই হবে। এই যেমন এখন আমি অধিকাংশ সময়ে শব্দচয়ন করতে গেলে ইংরেজি শব্দটাই আগে মাথায় আসে। কোনো ফর্মাল ম্যাসেজ /ইমেইল লিখার সময় ইংরেজিতেই আগে ভাবি যে কিভাবে কি সাজিয়ে লেখবো। আর এতে করে আমি নিজেই এখন বুঝতে পারি যে কয়েক মাস আগের আমার ইংরেজি স্কিল, আর এখনকার ইংরেজি স্কিল - দুটোর মধ্যে অন্তত ২টা প্রশান্ত মহাসাগরীয় দূরত্ব। আমি ইংরেজিতে খুব দক্ষ না হলেও এই একটা ছোট অভ্যাসের কারণে আমার যেই পরিমাণ ইংরেজি দক্ষতা বেড়েছে তা নিয়ে আমি আসলেই সন্তুষ্ট। আমি চাই ঠিক এই একটা ছোট্ট ট্রিক্সই সবাই নিজের ক্ষেত্রেও এপ্লাই করুক যারা আমার মতো ভাংগা ভাংগা ইংরেজী পারে কিংবা ইংরেজী শিখার প্রবল ইচ্ছাতে ভুগছে।

তাহলে এই পোস্টের সারাংশ কি? এই পোস্টের মূল উদ্দেশ্য হলো এটা বুঝানো যে আমরা যুগের সাথে তাল মিলাতে যুগকেই ব্যাবহার করতে পারি। আগের দিনে ফেসবুক না থাকাকালীন সময়ে মানুষ শুধু বই পড়ে পড়ে ইংরেজি শিখতো। প্র‍্যাক্টিস এর সুযোগ কম। কিন্তু এখন যেহেতু ফেসবুক ব্যাবহার করিই, তাহলে এটাকে কেনো কাজে লাগাচ্ছি নাহ আমরা! কেনো এটাকেই আমি ইংরেজি শিখার প্রথম ধাপ হিসেবে কাউন্ট করতে পারতেসি নাহ? কারণ আমরা আসলে এইভাবে কাজের কথা ভেবে দেখিই নাহ।

যাই হোক, আমি আশা করবো, এই কথাগুলা পড়ার পর লজ্জা ভুলে গিয়ে মাঝে মাঝে আপনিও এই Think in English এর জন্য প্রথম ধাপ অনুসরণ করবেন এবং আমাকে ইংরেজিতেই একদিন ম্যাসেজ দিয়ে জানাবেন আপনার সফলতা সম্পর্কে।

What is the shortest word in the English language that contains the letters: abcdef? Answer: feedback. Don’t forget that feedback is one of the essential elements of good communication.  - Unknown

বোনাস: ইংরেজি শিখার পাশাপাশি বাংলাটাও ভালোভাবে শিখেন। দুটোই দরকার। মাঝে মাঝে এখন এমন হয় যে বাংলাটা খুজে পাই না, কিন্তু ইংরেজি শব্দ মাথায় বারাবার ঘুরপাক খায়। 

The Alchemist বই তে একটা কথা ছিলো, 

“And, when you want something, all the universe conspires in helping you to achieve it.”

কথাটার গভীরতা বুঝানোর সাধ্য নেই আমার। এর প্রমাণ আমি নিজে অনেক পেয়েছি। সেটা হোক নিজেকে নিয়ে, অথবা অন্যকারো জীবনকে দেখে। কিন্তু এতদিন পর, আজকে জানতে পারলাম আরেক অদ্ভুত ঘটনা যা থেকে আবারো এই কথাটার প্রমাণ পেলাম।

বইটার লেখক কোয়েলহো যখন বইটা নিয়ে প্রথম ব্রাজিলিয়ান এক পাবলিশারের কাছে যায়, তখন মাত্র ৯০০ কপি ছাপান ওই প্রকাশক। সেই প্রকাশক বিশ্বাস করতো যে এই টাইটেল এর বই ৯০০ কপির বেশি বিক্রি হবে না। এবং সত্যিই তাই হয়। প্রকাশকের বিশ্বাস ছিলো অতি দৃঢ়।

অপরদিকে কোয়েলহোরও বিশ্বাস ছিলো যে তার এই বই পৃথিবীতে সাড়া জাগানো বই হবে। তাই সেও পরবর্তীতে আবার বইটির রাইটস/সত্ত্বা কিনে নেয় প্রকাশক থেকে। এবং এরপর তিনি আরেক ব্রাজিলিয়ান প্রকাশকের কাছে যান এবং খুব নম্রতার সাথেই বলেন, "আমি আপনাকে নিশ্চয়তা দিতে পারবো না এই বইয়ের বিক্রির ব্যাপারে, তবে আমার দৃঢ় বিশ্বাস এই বই একদিন পৃথিবীর বেস্ট সেলার বই হবে"। সেই প্রকাশক খুব একটা কথা না বাড়িয়ে অচিরেই উত্তর দেন, "Let's give it a try."। এবার বইটির কয়েক হাজার কপি বিক্রি হয়। এবং পুরো ব্রাজিলে এই বইয়ের নাম ছড়িয়ে পড়ে। তবে এবারো কিন্তু এটি পৃথিবীর বেস্ট সেলার বই হয়নি।

২০০৯ সালে কোয়েলহো এক ইন্টারভিউতে বলেন, 

"I was 41 and desperate. But I never lost faith in the book or ever wavered in my vision. Why? Because it was me in there, all of me, heart and soul. I was living my own metaphor."

দ্বিতীয়বার প্রকাশনার আটমাস পর একজন আমেরিকান টুরিস্ট বইটি পড়ে কোয়েলহোকে আমেরিকান প্রকাশকের দারস্ত হওয়ার জন্য বলেন। তিনি বলেন এ কাজে তিনি নিজেই সহায়তা করবেন। এরপর কোয়েলহো জানান, "বইটি ১১৯টি দেশে পৌছানো সম্ভব হতো না যদি না এই বইয়ের ইংরেজী অনুবাদ প্রকাশ করা হতো।"। এবং এরপরের ইতিহাস আমরা কম বেশি সবাই জানি। এই বইটি এখন পর্যন্ত ১৫০ মিলিয়ন কপি বিক্রি হয়।

কোয়েলহো মনে প্রাণে বিশ্বাস করতেন তার এই বই পুরো পৃথীবিতে বেস্ট সেলার হবে, এবং তাই হয়েছে। প্রথম প্রকাশক মনে প্রাণে বিশ্বাস করেছিলো এই বই ৯০০ কপির বেশি বিক্রি হবে না, এবং তাই হয়েছে। দুজনেই দুজনের বিশ্বাসকে বাস্তবে রুপ দিয়েছেন তাদের চেষ্টার মাধ্যমে। 

মজার বিষয় হলো, ২০১১ সালে The New York Times এর এক ইন্টারভিউতে কোয়েলহো জানান তিনি আসলে নিজেও বুঝেননি এত মিলিয়ন মিলিয়ন কপি বিক্রি হতে পারে তার এই ছোট্ট বইটার। তিনি বলেন, 

"It’s difficult to explain why. I think you can have 10,000 explanations for failure, but no good explanation for success"

বোনাসঃ কোয়েলহো এই বইটি মাত্র ২ সপ্তাহে লিখেছিলেন। এত কম সময়ে কিভাবে এরকম একটা বই লিখলেন তা জানতে চাইলে তিনি বলেন, 

"The book was already written in my soul."। 

Introduction

Threads in Operating Systems

Implementing Threads in C

 #include <pthread.h>  
 #include <stdio.h>  
 #include <stdlib.h>  
 void *print_message_function(void *ptr)  
 {  
  char *message;  
  message = (char *) ptr;  
  printf("%s \n", message);  
 }  
 int main()  
 {  
  pthread_t thread1, thread2;  
  char *message1 = "Thread 1";  
  char *message2 = "Thread 2";  
  int iret1, iret2;  
  /* Create independent threads each of which will execute function */  
  iret1 = pthread_create( &thread1, NULL, print_message_function, (void*) message1);  
  iret2 = pthread_create( &thread2, NULL, print_message_function, (void*) message2);  
  /* Wait till threads are complete before main continues. Unless we */  
  /* wait we run the risk of executing an exit which will terminate  */  
  /* the process and all threads before the threads have completed.  */  
  pthread_join( thread1, NULL);  
  pthread_join( thread2, NULL);   
  printf("Thread 1 returns: %d\n",iret1);  
  printf("Thread 2 returns: %d\n",iret2);  
  exit(0);  
 }